Water, a divine and essential element, symbolizing life and constant motion, conjures images of the beauty found in rivers, seas, or rainfall. Yet, for Ruth Ávila, it triggers memories of persistent floods that compelled her to abandon her own home and begin renting, even at the age of over 50. In Ligia Baltodano’s case, water serves as a poignant reminder that the catastrophe unleashed by Hurricane Mitch (category 5) facilitated the regularization of her immigration status in Costa Rica, enabling her to establish a new life in a foreign land.

Costa Rica boasts abundant natural beauty, yet its landscape is marked by factors that make it susceptible to recurrent natural occurrences. With two tectonic plates within its borders, along with 150 volcanoes and 34 hydrographic basins (16 flowing into the Pacific Ocean and 18 into the Caribbean Sea), the country is prone to tectonic movements, floods, heavy rains, landslides resulting from such rains, surges, tsunamis, and droughts. These events could become a reality at any given moment, and both Ruth and Ligia have experienced and continue to live through these challenges firsthand.

However, how does the United Nations (UN) define environmental displacement? It is described as “individuals or groups who have been forced or compelled to leave their homes or locations due to armed conflict, situations of widespread violence, human rights violations, or natural or man-made disasters. These individuals have not yet crossed an internationally recognized border between states or do so to avoid the resulting effects” (UN, 1998).

In light of this concept, it is evident that Costa Rica took an initial step in linking a natural event to immigration policy. Following the catastrophe caused by Hurricane Mitch (1998), a process was initiated to grant migratory status (commonly referred to as the “Migratory Amnesty”). This process facilitated the straightforward establishment of permanent residency in the country for 155,316 Central American individuals who were present on Costa Rican soil, sparing them from the necessity of returning to their home countries. The catastrophe was of apocalyptic proportions, resulting in 11,000 deaths, 13,000 missing persons, and 3 million affected.

Honduras: In this country, 1,500,000 people were directly affected by Mitch. Source: El Pais

This precedent is proudly mentioned and emphasized by Ligia: “From that moment on, I acquired my residency permit, and I take care of it a lot.”

This public policy action took place during the government of Miguel Ángel Rodríguez, along with other (less benevolent) actions by other governments, such as the United States. This was part of an agreement among the presidents of that time to assist the countries most affected by Mitch.

In dark suits, from left to right: Presidents Carlos Flores (Honduras), Bill Clinton (US), and Miguel Ángel Rodríguez (Costa Rica). Source: Radio House

This “Migratory Amnesty” is one of the few precedents in the region where environmental factors have influenced immigration policy. The Brazilian government, years later, took a similar step with Haitians following the earthquakes in 2010, providing them with a visa exemption. This led to a significant migration process towards the South American country.

However, in Ruth’s case, environmental issues have been part of her daily vocabulary with her neighbors for decades. Even though she moved to another area, she continues her fight for her neighbors and her former house in the area, as the climate also changed her life. She used to be a resident of Barrio Luján in San José, tired of being trapped by recurrent floods during the rainy season. One day, along with her family, she made the decision to find a home in another neighborhood. She wanted to live without the fear of the rainy season, which was already affecting her mental and physical health as the time of year approached. It was even worse when she saw dark clouds accumulating in the sky, ready to release their rain over the Ocloro River. This posed the potential for its contaminated waters to cause material losses and the proliferation of diseases associated with the overflowing septic waters that boldly and meticulously traverse the neighborhood, sparing no corner. The only salvation for some houses (sometimes) is being on higher ground.

Luján Neighborhood , San José, Costa Rica. Photo: Cynthia Mora

This neighborhood in San José was built along the banks of the Ocloro River. Its residents are people who have lived from generation to generation in one of the first neighborhoods established for working-class individuals in the area. However, like Ruth, there are thousands of Costa Ricans living in areas prone to floods, landslides, or mudslides. Their presence in these areas is not only due to a family connection but also because of the lack of opportunities for access to decent housing in a safe zone.

Source: Cynthia Mora

Source: Group chat screenshot from the neighbors of Barrio Luján on WhatsApp.

But, really, how organized and aware is the Costa Rican population regarding the vulnerability they face while living in this territory?

 In 2017, the Institute of Social Studies in Population (IDESPO) at the National University conducted a national survey titled: “Are We Prepared?: Natural Disasters and Environmental Displacement in Costa Rica.” The aim was to understand what the national population perceives and knows about population displacement caused by natural events. The study surveyed 600 people.

The survey revealed some striking aspects for a population accustomed to living amid many environmental factors that, combined with anthropogenic actions, can amplify the vulnerability and even mortality caused by a natural event.

The report revealed a range of information about natural disasters and their consequences. For instance, the respondents demonstrated a clear understanding of what constitutes a natural disaster, its origins, and its impacts. They recognized that events like floods, flash floods, and landslides could be caused by human activities.

Approximately one in three of those interviewed had experienced the effects of a natural event, predominantly facing earthquakes, tremors, floods, and volcanic activities. Additionally, most of the surveyed population admitted that, on an individual, familial, or community level, they were ill-prepared to confront an emergency situation triggered by a natural event. The study also highlighted a lack of awareness regarding the increasing significance of environmental displacement as a growing issue.

For those who acknowledged experiencing displacement due to these factors, they pointed to floods as the primary events prompting such mobility. Although their displacement is often temporary, it’s important to recognize the existence of individuals who have had to relocate permanently, impacting their lifestyles, social networks, and relationships, among other aspects.

The study highlighted the existence of environmental displacement and emphasized the need to address it from local networks to institutional approaches. It is important to note that in recent years, Costa Rica has made significant efforts to confront the challenges presented by environmental issues. This includes submitting the Fourth National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the approval of the National Adaptation Plan to Climate Change (NAP) for 2022-2026.

In addition, according to the Global Risk Management Index (INFORM) for 2022, Costa Rica ranked 82nd out of 191 countries, with a Global index of 3.2. This places it as the top Central American country and the 15th in Latin America and the Caribbean. It has the best risk management indicators, according to the Inter-Agency Standing Committee and the European Commission in 2022, based on three dimensions: threat and exposure, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity.

However, this does not exempt the country from the constant impact of natural events. For example, in 2021, according to the DesInventar.net platform that collects information on risk events in Costa Rica, 1,002 records were generated, with 993 corresponding to hydrometeorological events. The remaining 9 records included structural collapses (4), structural fires (4), and earthquakes (1).

It is also important to observe the Human Development Index (HDI) of the most affected areas, where the reasons for recurrence and severity begin to be evident. The most affected areas are generally rural zones. For instance, in 2021, 1,511,178 people were affected, with the majority living in the cantons of Guatuso, Upala, and Turrialba. These cantons have low and medium HDIs, except for Turrialba, which has a high HDI.

The challenge of creating a balance between the knowledge individuals possess to make decisions about their safety and the socio-economic characteristics of the population facing the impact of natural events is not straightforward. Often, it is linked to the urgent need to settle wherever possible, rather than in a secure location.

This scenario is directly tied to effective public policy management that, beyond numbers and protocols, genuinely reaches people not only in prevention but also in truly helping to create, support, and strengthen those who have lost everything, not just material possessions but also loved ones. This goes beyond indicators and achievements. Displacement due to environmental and anthropogenic conditions is increasingly becoming a part of the reality of all countries, and in the Costa Rican case, it becomes a part of the daily life of neighborhoods and residential areas. Like water, it affects everyone equally, but, as with Ruth and Ligia, it redirected their daily lives.

Cynthia Mora-Izaguirre, Researcher and lecturer at the University of Costa Rica (UCR) in the School of Political Sciences and the National University (UNA) at the Institute of Social Studies in Population (IDESPO). She earned her Ph.D. in Political Sciences from the University of Rostock, Germany. Her work specializes in migration, public policies, mobilities, decent work, environmental displacement and political culture.